Intergroup Contact, Traditional and Social Media Use, and Attitudes Toward Chinese People in COVID-19: US College Students' Perspective

Guided by cultivation theory and intergroup contact theory, we examined how U.S. college students' traditional media use and social media use for information about COVID-19, and direct contact with Chinese were associated with their behavioral attitudes toward Chinese people in this survey study. Findings indicated that contact quality was positively associated with attitudes toward Chinese people. Moderation analyses indicated that traditional media use negatively predicted behavioral attitudes toward Chinese people for those with no Chinese friends and was a nonsignificant predictor for those with one or more Chinese friends. Furthermore, results indicated that social media use was positively associated with attitudes toward Chinese people for those who had high contact quality with Chinese but was a nonsignificant predictor for those who had low contact quality. Overall findings ruminate the critical role of intergroup contact quality and friendship in reducing intergroup prejudice in COVID-19.

Online cross-religion donation during COVID-19: mediating role of empathy and trust

PurposeMost donation-related studies have extensively examined in-group donation behavior, but it is difficult to find similar studies that consider donations to out-group members. This study aims to understand online cross-religion donation during COVID-19 in Indonesia.Design/methodology/approachThe online questionnaire is distributed using the purposive and snowball sampling technique. From July to August 2021, 753 respondents are obtained, comprising Muslims, Catholics, Christians, Hindus, Buddhists and Confucian.FindingsThis study found that online cross-religion dona tion is strongly influenced by the social presence, trust in fundraiser and empathy. Interestingly, this study also reveals a partial mediation effect of trust in fundraiser and empathy in the relationship between social presence and online cross-religion donation. Future studies are encouraged to investigate and explore how care for others may affect online prosocial behavior.Originality/valueThis study provides two theoretical contributions. First, this study empirically evinced that charitable donation is blind to religious belief. Second, it promotes the mediating role of empathy and trust in fundraisers to improve online cross-religion donation.

COVID-19-related conspiracy theories in China

Many COVID-19 conspiracy theories implicate China and its agents, whether implicitly or explicitly, as conspirators with potentially malicious intent behind the current pandemic. We set out to explore whether Chinese people believe in pandemic-related conspiracy theories, and if so, how do their secure (in-group identification) and defensive (collective narcissism) in-group positivity predict their conspiracy beliefs. We hypothesized that national identification would negatively predict the tendency to attribute responsibility to an in-group, thus predicting less risk-rejection conspiracy theory beliefs (e.g., COVID-19 is a hoax). In contrast, national collective narcissism would positively predict the tendency to attribute responsibility for the pandemic to an out-group, which in turn would validate conspiracy theories that acknowledge the risk of the pandemic (e.g., COVID-19 is a bioweapon). To test these predictions, we collected data in China (n = 1,200) in April 2020. Supporting our predictions, national identification was negatively associated with risk-rejection conspiracy beliefs via in-group attribution, whereas national collective narcissism was positively associated with risk-acceptance conspiracy beliefs via out-group attribution.

Looking for your cross-group friends after the breakout? Children's intergroup contact behaviours before and after the onset of COVID-19.

While COVID-19 implications for prejudice have been investigated among adults in previous research, children's intergroup reactions to the pandemic and specifically how native children's contact behaviours with refugees might have changed after the pandemic has not been examined yet. Drawing on a unique longitudinal school dataset (N = 861, 5th graders, Mage reported at T1 = 10.38, SD = 0.68) collected before the onset of the pandemic (T1, pre-lockdown), after the onset of the pandemic (T2, post-lockdown), and 6 months after the post-lockdown (T3, follow-up) in Turkey, we examined how children's contact behaviour (positive and negative contact), contact motivation (self-efficacy and volition), as well as behavioural tendencies (approach and avoidance) have shifted during this period (2.5 years). We observed a consistent pattern of improvement in contact behaviours demonstrated by increases in positive contact variables and decreases in negative contact variables particularly from T1 to T2. The change in some positive contact variables was stable for 6 months, while negative contact and avoidance rapidly regressed to the baseline during the normalization period (T3). The boosting effect of the pandemic was particularly pronounced among children who displayed greater prejudice towards refugees before the pandemic. Findings contribute to the growing research literature delineating the potential benefits of COVID-19 at the collective level.

Conformity and reactions to deviance in the time of COVID-19

We have seen massive global behavioral change as billions of people radically altered their ways of life in response to COVID-19. Here, we review how research on conformity and deviance can inform understanding of and effective responses to the pandemic. Group identities are critical for understanding who is influenced by whom, as well as how partisan divisions can obstruct cohesive and coordinated action. We identify several questions highlighted by the pandemic, including when people will react more harshly to ingroup members who violate health-protective norms (black sheep effect) or to outgroup members violating the same norms (intergroup hypocrisy). As a working hypothesis, we propose a goal-based approach, positing that differentially negative reactions to ingroup and outgroup deviants are likely influenced by the relative salience of goals to protect ingroup image, enforce group norms, maintain intergroup boundaries, and seek justice for potential victims put at risk by norm-violating behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Person and situation effects in predicting outgroup prejudice and avoidance during the COVID-19 pandemic

Recent theories of intergroup relations suggest that factors relevant to disease, disgust, and contagion predict prejudice towards ethnic outgroups. The current research explored the influence of contextual pathogen threat and individual differences in threat sensitivity on outgroup prejudice and avoidance in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected from a sample of British adults in June 2020 (N = 524). A multi-level approach was employed to capture differences in confirmed COVID-19 cases across different regions in the UK. Results demonstrated that even in a "strong" pandemic context, individual differences in both disgust sensitivity (DS) and intergroup disgust sensitivity (ITG-DS) explained variability in outgroup distancing. Subjective perceptions of contextual pathogen prevalence, but not actual infection rates, also predicted greater outgroup avoidance. However, a significant cross-level interaction revealed that DS predicted outgroup distancing in regions with higher numbers of confirmed COVID-19 cases, but not in areas of lower infection. Thus, individual differences in pathogen avoidance may be especially influential under high situational pathogen stress. There was also some evidence that pathogen threat also predicted greater ingroup attraction. Results provide important insights into factors that promote or inhibit positive intergroup relations during pandemics. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Attachments, trauma, and COVID-19: Implications for leaders, groups, and social justice

Objective: The present article applies attachment theory to understand the impact of COVID-19 on social inequities, discrimination, and oppression of people based on their different group identities (e.g., race, class, ability, gender, faith). Method: Theory and research was reviewed in the area social and clinical psychology. The link between attachment and outgroup behavior, transgenerational trauma, and group leadership was discussed. After careful review of the literature, the link between attachment, trauma, epistemic trust, and reflective functioning, at the individual and group level was explored. Results: During the pandemic, individuals were more inclined to rely on their group identities and vulnerable to devalue out-groups. They were more at risk of experiencing traumatic reactions that can compromise their ability to tolerate conflict in groups. However, group interventions were still an important resource during this challenging time. Conclusion: The author recommends more research and attention on facilitating secure attachments, training group leaders, addressing transgenerational trauma in groups, promoting the use of group interventions, and increasing efforts toward social justice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) Impact Statement Highlights and Implications-* Attachment theory can shed light on discrimination and oppression. It is related to self-esteem, outgroup derogation, and aggression. * Attachment dimensions can be explored using a group-level perspective. Group attachments are ways different types of groups take on more anxious, more avoidant, or more secure behaviors and emotion regulating strategies. * Intergenerational and current group traumas, as well as threats of mortality due to COVID-19, impact both individual and group attachment security. * Attachment theory provides a general explanation for group processes that are both destructive and curative. Group researchers and therapists can engage in social justice and facilitate leadership that can promote trust and empathy in groups that are suffering. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

COVID-19 threat and negative attitudes toward outgroup and ingroup others: A multilevel analysis with coarsened exact matching

Using two waves of nationally representative data, the present study shows the extent to which the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated anti-outgroup and anti-ingroup attitudes among South Korean adults. To that end, in a quasi-experimental setting, it exploits the survey interview timing as a source of exogenous variation to investigate the causal influence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Data imbalance is initially corrected using the coarsened exact matching procedure. Then, a series of multilevel models, with data on 10,454 subjects nested in 34 wave–region units, are estimated with additional covariate adjustment to improve estimate precision. Results show that, first, those who are more relatively deprived became less inclined to support the granting of citizenship status to foreigners since the coronavirus outbreak. Second, the same trend was found among individuals who are more dissatisfied with the country's overall economic condition. Third, in the wake of the global health crisis, Korean natives became less willing to pay additional taxes to support conational others who are economically underprivileged. © The Author(s) 2023.

Activism in the time of COVID-19

In many countries, COVID-19 has amplified the health, economic and social inequities that motivate group-based collective action. We draw upon the SIRDE/IDEAS model of social change to explore how the pandemic might have affected complex reactions to social injustices. We argue that the virus elicits widespread negative emotions which are spread contagiously through social media due to increased social isolation caused by shelter-in-place directives. When an incident occurs which highlights systemic injustices, the prevailing negative emotional climate intensifies anger at these injustices as well as other emotions, which motivates participation in protest actions despite the obvious risk. We discuss how the pandemic might shape both normative and non-normative protests, including radical violent and destructive collective actions. We also discuss how separatism is being encouraged in some countries due to a lack of effective national leadership and speculate that this is partially the result of different patterns of social identification. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Collective narcissism, in-group satisfaction, and solidarity in the face of COVID-19

The present study explored the antecedents of solidarity amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Given that solidarity during mass emergencies involves the development of a social identity encompassing those facing a common fate, we examined how national in-group satisfaction (IS, a belief that the national in-group and one's membership in it are of high value) versus national collective narcissism (CN, a belief that the national in-group is exceptional and entitled to privileged treatment but not sufficiently recognized by others) predicted solidarity with those affected by the pandemic in Poland. The results of cross-sectional and dynamic analyses from a panel study on a representative sample of Polish adults indicate that IS predicted greater COVID-19 solidarity, whereas CN predicted reduced COVID-19 solidarity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Spontaneous charitable donations in sweden before and after covid: A natural experiment

Did the outbreak of COVID-19 influence spontaneous donation behavior? To investigate this, we conducted a natural experiment on real donation data. We analyzed the absolute amount, and the proportion of total payments, donated by individuals to charitable organizations via Swish-a widely used mobile online payment application through which most Swedes prefer to make their donations to charity-each day of 2019 and 2020. Spontaneous charitable donations were operationalized as Swish-payments to numbers starting with 90, as this number is a nationally acknowledged quality control label that is provided to all fundraising operations that are monitored by the Swedish Fundraising Control. The results show that the Swish-donations fluctuated substantially depending on season (less donations in January-February and during the summer months, and more donations in April-May and during the last months of the year) and specific events (peaks in Swish-donations often coincided with televised charity fundraising galas). Interrupted time-series analyses revealed that spontaneous donations were overall unaffected by the pandemic outbreak. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

Crisis complicates peacebuilding in postconflict societies: COVID-19 support triggers negative outgroup emotions among individuals with low and high prejudice

Despite research on intergroup relations showing that prejudice influences the effect of intergroup help on outgroup empathy, less is known about the interplay of prejudice and intergroup help on outgroup emotions, trust, and perceptions in postconflict societies, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, we examined whether outgroup prejudice moderates the effect of outgroup help with fighting COVID-19 on intergroup affect and intergroup perception. In two studies (Ntotal = 811), participants with low prejudice exhibited more negative intergroup emotions and perceptions (i.e., perceived outgroup dominance) and less outgroup trust when the outgroup's country (i.e., a former opponent) had supported their country in fighting the pandemic than when it had supported another country or when support had been exchanged between other countries. In addition, participants with high prejudice exhibited more negative intergroup emotions and perceptions and less outgroup trust in all experimental conditions and perceived outgroup dominance explained the observed effects for participants with low prejudice. This article discusses what these results imply for theory and practice concerning postconflict intergroup relations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved) Impact Statement This research clarifies how people in postconflict societies react to receiving help from former opponents. In two studies, individuals with low prejudice had less trust and more negative emotions and perceptions regarding the outgroup after receiving outgroup help than in two control conditions. In addition, individuals with high prejudice had those same emotions, perceptions, and levels of trust whether the outgroup had offered help or not, which indicates their largely fixed negative views on the outgroup. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

COVID-19-related conspiracy theories in China: The role of secure versus defensive in-group positivity and responsibility attributions

Many COVID-19 conspiracy theories implicate China and its agents, whether implicitly or explicitly, as conspirators with potentially malicious intent behind the current pandemic. We set out to explore whether Chinese people believe in pandemic-related conspiracy theories, and if so, how do their secure (in-group identification) and defensive (collective narcissism) in-group positivity predict their conspiracy beliefs. We hypothesized that national identification would negatively predict the tendency to attribute responsibility to an in-group, thus predicting less risk-rejection conspiracy theory beliefs (e.g., COVID-19 is a hoax). In contrast, national collective narcissism would positively predict the tendency to attribute responsibility for the pandemic to an out-group, which in turn would validate conspiracy theories that acknowledge the risk of the pandemic (e.g., COVID-19 is a bioweapon). To test these predictions, we collected data in China (n = 1,200) in April 2020. Supporting our predictions, national identification was negatively associated with risk-rejection conspiracy beliefs via in-group attribution, whereas national collective narcissism was positively associated with risk-acceptance conspiracy beliefs via out-group attribution. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Does COVID-19 threat relate to intergroup attitudes? A test in the U.K

Social and evolutionary psychologists propose that humans have acquired an evolutionary mechanism that facilitates pathogen avoidance behavior: the behavioral immune system (BIS). Previous studies have revealed that the BIS yields negative attitudes toward out-group members. Given the clear relevance of pathogen-avoidance psychology to individuals' reactions to the COVID-19 global pandemic, the present research examined whether attitudes toward potentially pathogenic outgroups during the pandemic would reflect the BIS. Using large-scale panel data (N = 1,548) collected in May 2020 in 3 of the U.K.'s devolved nations (England, Scotland, and Wales), we examined whether perceived COVID-19 threat was associated with negative attitudes toward 2 different national out-groups linked to the initial outbreak (Italy and China), as well as the in-group (the U.K.). Failing to support the BIS hypothesis, mini-meta-analyses on results from the 3 nations revealed that COVID-19 threat was only very weakly associated with attitude toward the U.K., Italy, and China. Results suggest that implications from pathogen psychology might be more limited than previously thought and apply only to specific out-group members. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved) Impact Statement Using large-scale panel data collected during the COVID-19 pandemic (May 2020) in England, Wales, and Scotland, we examined whether perceived threat from the coronavirus would be related to intergroup attitudes toward the U.K., China, and Italy. Contrary to previous studies on pathogen psychology suggesting pathogen threat should predict negative attitudes toward out-groups, we found that COVID-19 threat was only weakly related to intergroup attitudes. Our results suggest that implications from pathogen psychology might be more limited than previously thought and apply only to specific out-group members. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

How are we going to treat Chinese people during the pandemic? Media cultivation of intergroup threat and blame.

This study integrates cultivation and intergroup threat theories to examine media cultivation effects during the COVID-19 pandemic. We argue that U.S. media have consistently portrayed China as a threat and target of blame. The cultivation of media has thus resulted in perceived threat of and blame on Chinese people for the COVID-19 pandemic. Results of a cross-sectional survey in two samples (MTurk: N = 375; college: N = 566) showed that the amount of media consumption predicted stronger perceptions that Chinese people were a health threat, and also predicted blame on Chinese people for the COVID-19 outbreak. Threat perception and blame were further associated with support of media content that derogated China, stronger intentions to attack, and weaker intentions to help Chinese people. The findings have profound implications for intergroup threat and cultivation research, and practical importance for intergroup relations, especially when the global community finds itself in a public crisis.

Crisis complicates peacebuilding in postconflict societies: COVID-19 support triggers negative outgroup emotions among individuals with low and high prejudice

Despite research on intergroup relations showing that prejudice influences the effect of intergroup help on outgroup empathy, less is known about the interplay of prejudice and intergroup help on outgroup emotions, trust, and perceptions in postconflict societies, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. In response, we examined whether outgroup prejudice moderates the effect of outgroup help with fighting COVID-19 on intergroup affect and intergroup perception. In two studies (N-total = 811), participants with low prejudice exhibited more negative intergroup emotions and perceptions (i.e., perceived outgroup dominance) and less outgroup trust when the outgroup' s country (i.e., a former opponent) had supported their country in fighting the pandemic than when it had supported another country or when support had been exchanged between other countries. In addition, participants with high prejudice exhibited more negative intergroup emotions and perceptions and less outgroup trust in all experimental conditions and perceived outgroup dominance explained the observed effects for participants with low prejudice. This article discusses what these results imply for theory and practice concerning postconflict intergroup relations.

Outgroup threat, ideology, and favorable evaluations of the government's responses to COVID-19.

Based on social psychological theories of intergroup relations, perceptions of threat from outgroups contribute to ingroup favoritism. This research examined the effects of the perceived threat from outgroups (the US) on Chinese people's favorable evaluations of their government's responses to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Study 1 conducted an experiment and found that the US' criticism of China's responses to the pandemic increased Chinese citizens' favorable evaluations of the government's performance. Study 2 was a correlational design and found that the relationship between perceptions of outgroup threats and evaluations of the government's performance was moderated by ideology and the approval of lockdown policies. These results show that outgroups are sophisticatedly employed by politicians to increase ingroup favoritism and suggest that ideological divide is an important moderator in the association between outgroup threat and the evaluation of ingroup.

Caught COVID-19? Covidiot! Attributions of humanness and social punishment toward an ingroup member who breaks lockdown rules

Many governments' COVID-19 prevention messages highlighted individual accountability and the stigmatization of individuals who violate lockdown rules. The present study examined French people's (N = 567) attributions of humanness to and willingness to punish (i.e., whether the target deserved medical care, helping intentions toward the target) an individual who respected versus violated the rules of the country's first (March to May) versus second (November to December) lockdowns. Participants attributed less humanness to and were more willing to punish the deviant target than the compliant target. These effects were stronger during the first lockdown than during the second lockdown. Perceived threat of COVID-19 to the national ingroup moderated these effects, and attributions of humanness mediated willingness to punish the target. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)

Spontaneous charitable donations in Sweden before and after COVID: A natural experiment

Did the outbreak of COVID-19 influence spontaneous donation behavior? To investigate this, we conducted a natural experiment on real donation data. We analyzed the absolute amount, and the proportion of total payments, donated by individuals to charitable organizations via Swish?a widely used mobile online payment application through which most Swedes prefer to make their donations to charity?each day of 2019 and 2020. Spontaneous charitable donations were operationalized as Swish-payments to numbers starting with 90, as this number is a nationally acknowledged quality control label that is provided to all fundraising operations that are monitored by the Swedish Fundraising Control. The results show that the Swish-donations fluctuated substantially depending on season (less donations in January?February and during the summer months, and more donations in April?May and during the last months of the year) and specific events (peaks in Swish-donations often coincided with televised charity fundraising galas). Interrupted time-series analyses revealed that spontaneous donations were overall unaffected by the pandemic outbreak.

Online cross-religion donation during COVID-19: mediating role of empathy and trust

Purpose Most donation-related studies have extensively examined in-group donation behavior, but it is difficult to find similar studies that consider donations to out-group members. This study aims to understand online cross-religion donation during COVID-19 in Indonesia. Design/methodology/approach The online questionnaire is distributed using the purposive and snowball sampling technique. From July to August 2021, 753 respondents are obtained, comprising Muslims, Catholics, Christians, Hindus, Buddhists and Confucian. Findings This study found that online cross-religion dona tion is strongly influenced by the social presence, trust in fundraiser and empathy. Interestingly, this study also reveals a partial mediation effect of trust in fundraiser and empathy in the relationship between social presence and online cross-religion donation. Future studies are encouraged to investigate and explore how care for others may affect online prosocial behavior. Originality/value This study provides two theoretical contributions. First, this study empirically evinced that charitable donation is blind to religious belief. Second, it promotes the mediating role of empathy and trust in fundraisers to improve online cross-religion donation.